How to save a sacred forest: resident views on forest degradation and protection in Togo, West Africa

10 October, 2025

By Nico Arcilla and Brandon Franta

This article was originally published by Science X Dialog at Phys.org

Sacred forests provide critical refuge for wildlife such as this Laughing Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis). Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Historically protected by cultural traditions, sacred forests are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures, particularly in West Africa, where natural areas and wildlife populations have dwindled as human populations have increased exponentially. Sub-Saharan Africa has the fastest growing human population in the world, leading to increasing destruction of natural areas. Tree cutting for wood fuel is a major driver of deforestation in this region, but continues nevertheless, often because residents fail to perceive any viable alternatives.

Deforestation due to tree cutting for firewood has encroached on and diminished many sacred forests, despite longstanding African traditions of protecting them. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Wood fuel is the most significant household energy source for residents of sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for 80% of the total wood consumption in the region and driving forest degradation. For example, between 1985 and 2020, the West African country of Togo lost over half of its forest cover, over the same period that many wildlife populations have been poached to extinction, even inside Togo’s national parks. Given this situation, the persistence of Nakpadjoak forest in northern Togo in an otherwise largely deforested landscape demonstrates the successful legacy of traditional protection for this sacred forest.

A view from inside the sacred forest of Nakpadjoak in northern Togo. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Nakpadjoak forest is a 50-ha remnant of a once extensive woodland savanna ecosystem that has otherwise been largely degraded and destroyed. Now surrounded by agricultural fields and houses, Nakpadjoak forest has been protected by residents in the adjacent village as a sacred site, but has recently come under tremendous pressure due to anthropogenic overexploitation.

Meeting with leaders and residents in the village of Tami to discuss Nakpadjoak forest. Photo by Lin-Ernni M. Kaboumba.

Working with colleagues from Togo, we sought to evaluate local perspectives on the current and future role of the sacred forest, identify resident views on policy and management strategies for the sacred forest, and assess local willingness and capacity to use alternatives to wood as a primary household energy source. The results of our study have been published in the journal Conservation. Our survey had a 100% response rate, with 281 interviews completed in all households in the vicinity of Nakpadjoak forest. Participants ranged in age from 19 to 90 years old. The majority (71%) of respondents had never attended school or received any formal education. Most (81%) lived in households with more than five people, and the vast majority (93%) owned livestock, especially cattle (65%). The vast majority (95%) of respondents felt that living near the sacred forest was advantageous.

Napadjoak forest is seen by residents as bringing rain to the farmers’ fields surrounding it. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Residents view Nakpadjoak forest as bringing rain essential for their crops, and 96% of respondents reporting rain as the greatest benefit of living near the forest, closely followed by access to medicinal plants (89%). Just over half (55%) of residents felt that entering the forest should be prohibited, while those supporting forest access were motivated by interest in harvesting medicinal plants (90%), harvesting honey (85%), gathering fruits (84%), and practicing sacred rituals (82%).

Small natural areas such as Napadjoak forest provide many benefits to people, plants, and wildlife of all sizes. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

However, most participants (81%) reported recent detrimental changes in the forest, and nearly two-thirds (64%) of residents perceived wood cutting as contributing to the degradation of the sacred forest. Most respondents (96%) identified wood as their principal household energy source. While 88% of respondents recognized that cutting wood in the forest was not permitted, 40% knew at least one person who cut wood in the forest, and 22% reported taking wood from the sacred forest themselves.

Bare land increasingly surrounds and encroaches into Napadjoak forest. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Given these findings, how can this sacred forest be saved, and with it a significant piece of African natural and cultural heritage? Most residents (74%) thought that there were advantages to using natural gas over wood, and the vast majority (90%) reported being willing to switch from using wood to natural gas. Over three-quarters (77%) of residents reported that they could afford the price of filling a natural gas tank sufficient to support a family of five for a month. Men were 2 times more likely than women to state a willingness to bear the cost of refilling a natural gas tank at a cost of ~ $7. Younger respondents were also more likely to bear the cost of refilling a natural gas tank, and those living in households less than 1 km from the sacred forest were better able to afford this cost.

Residents near Napadjoak forest pose with cooking gas tanks, an alternative to wood fuel. Photo by Lin-Ernni M. Kaboumba.

The vast majority (92%) of residents support protecting Nakpadjoak forest, and almost all (99%) recommended reforestation initiatives. However, wood fuel consumption significantly facilitates forest degradation, both locally and globally. What can change this? We can find an example across the Atlantic on the island of Hispaniola. On one side, the Dominican Republic has subsidized alternative fuels such as natural gas and provided accompanying cooking stoves to its population, sparing its precious forests. On the other side, in Haiti, the problem has not been effectively addressed and almost all of its forests have been destroyed. In Togo, the interest and willingness of local residents to switch to natural gas presents a promising opportunity to reduce pressure on the use of the forest.

Residents preparing ground for planting trees to restore Nakpadjoak forest. Photo by Lin-Ernni M. Kaboumba.

While the majority of the residents surrounding Nakpadjoak forest want it to be protected, recent forest conservation efforts appear to have been limited by absent or weak enforcement of regulations and conflicts of interest. Transitioning to alternative fuel sources—which residents reported being willing and able to do—could reduce pressure on the forest and support its conservation. Although natural gas is widely available in Togo’s cities (the closest city, Dapaong, is ~25 km by road), the lack of gas depots in rural villages such as Tami presents a barrier to encouraging residents to transition to this alternative household energy source. In fact, most residents reported that they considered natural gas to be preferable to wood as a household energy source and overwhelmingly reported that they would make the switch to use natural gas, given the opportunity.

A Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu (Uraeginthus bengalus) in Nakpadjoak forest. Photo by Nico Arcilla.

Fortunately, a new conservation initiative in Nakpadjoak forest is already underway, providing the community with cooking gas tanks and planting and protecting new trees in an effort to restore the sacred forest and reverse the damage done by wood cutting, grazing, and other human activities. Given that most residents support prohibiting general access to the forest, enforcing such a policy by appointing forest guardians is highly recommended as a path forward. It takes a village to save a sacred forest. We wish this wonderful community every success in their efforts to do so!

Residents planting trees to restore Nakpadjoak forest. Photo by Lin-Ernni M. Kaboumba.