Slaughter in the water: Can the Ramsar Convention protect African waterbirds?

18 June, 2026

by Nico Arcilla and Abiola Sylvestre Chaffra

edited by Lisa Lock, reviewed by Robert Egan

Original article: https://phys.org/news/2026-06-slaughter-ramsar-convention-african-waterbirds.html

A White-faced Whistling Duck; more than 1,700 breeding adults and nearly 25,000 eggs of this species were taken by 64 hunters over the course of a single breeding season in Ramsar site 1018, southeastern Benin. Credit: Nico Arcilla.

The Ramsar Convention is the world's longest-standing international treaty for wetland and waterbird protection. Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat has to date been signed by 172 countries, which have agreed to engage in "working together for wetland conservation and wise use" in more than 2,500 protected areas covering over 2.5 million square kilometers (965,000 square miles) around the world. However, the Ramsar Convention's measures are not legally binding, leaving open the possibility that many Ramsar sites may be akin to "paper parks"—protected in theory, but not in reality.

Unfortunately, the global conservation status of wetlands has not improved since the enactment of the Ramsar Convention. On the contrary, recent studies report losses of a thirdor more of wetlands worldwide, due to human impacts such as drainage for agriculture, pollution, and the destruction of reed beds, mangroves and other native wetland vegetation. Moreover, despite the extensive coverage of wetland areas protected by the Ramsar Convention, global waterbird populations are in decline, especially in regions with weak governance, such as sub-Saharan Africa.

How effective is the Ramsar Convention in protecting African waterbirds from unsustainable hunting? Wetlands in sub-Saharan Africa provide crucial habitat for waterbirds, including both year-round resident birds as well as migratory waterbirds visiting from Europe and Asia. However, human-caused bird mortality is nearly 2.5 times higher in Africa compared with Europe or Asia, despite conservation efforts. During the breeding season, when nesting waterbirds may literally be "sitting ducks," they are especially vulnerable to hunting and egg harvesting, both by local residents and professional hunters and trappers.

We investigated the effectiveness of the Ramsar Convention as a waterbird conservation tool through a field study in Ramsar site 1018 in southeastern Benin, West Africa. Between May and October 2022, we conducted monthly interviews with 64 residents, including 19 (30%) self-identified professional hunters. Interviewees reported numbers of waterbirds and eggs they took from Ramsar site 1018 during the six-month rainy season, which corresponds to the waterbird breeding season. Our findings were published in the journal Earth.

An Allen's Gallinule trapped at its nest by a hunter in southeastern Benin; hunters reported taking nearly 4,200 breeding adults and nearly 16,000 eggs of this species over the course of a single breeding season in Ramsar site 1018. Credit: Abiola Sylvestre Chaffra.

Hunters caught waterbirds in their nests by throwing fishing nets over them during incubation, hanging baited fish hooks over waterbird nests, or trapping birds in cylindrical cages woven from Raphia leaves. Although our 64 interviewees represented only a tiny minority of the total number of waterbird hunters active in Ramsar site 1018, they reported taking enormous numbers of breeding birds and eggs, totaling over 12,000 birds and nearly 64,000 eggs during a single breeding season.

The four most heavily persecuted species included the White-faced Whistling Duck, Allen's Gallinule, Eurasian Moorhen and Lesser Moorhen, which together made up 89% of all breeding birds and 92% of all eggs harvested. The African Swamphen, Black Crake, African Jacana and African Crake were also targeted by hunters and trappers, but reportedly with less success because their nests are more difficult to find. Hunters typically eat eggs and birds they kill, while their family members, typically women and children, sell live birds at roadsides to passersby as bushmeat.

Hunters reported taking 24,491 White-faced Whistling Duck eggs, representing over a third (~38%) of all eggs taken, and 1,704 adult ducks, comprising 14% of all breeding birds taken. Hunters took 4,187 Allen's Gallinules, representing over a third (~35%) of all birds harvested by interviewees, and 15,914 eggs of this species, representing nearly a quarter (24%) of the total eggs collected. Eurasian Moorhens made up a fifth (~20%) of all birds harvested by hunters interviewed in the study area, representing 2,418 birds taken, and hunters harvested 9,234 eggs of this species, or 14% of the total eggs harvested. Lesser Moorhens likewise made up a fifth (~20%) of all birds and 14% of all eggs harvested, with 2,395 breeding birds and 9,227 eggs taken by 64 interviewees.

Although Ramsar site 1018 is classified as a protected area, the colossal numbers of birds and eggs reported as trapped and killed in this study represent a fraction of the total, with the actual numbers of birds and eggs taken much higher in reality. The harvest of such staggering numbers of breeding birds and eggs means waterbird persecution in the study area is likely driving population declines of these species.

For example, such devastating levels of exploitation have led to the collapse of White-faced Whistling Duck populations in Ramsar site 1721 in neighboring Togo, together with many other wildlife species, following the destruction of Kéran National Park and the loss of significant ecotourism jobs and revenues associated with it.

As long as 30 years ago, a Dutch-led bird survey in this region noted threats to Ramsar site 1018 from human encroachment and activities including overhunting, overfishing, pollution and tree cutting. Throughout these wetlands, there is evidence of uncontrolled poaching of nesting waterbirds by both local residents and commercial hunters from the cities of Cotonou, Abomey and Porto-Novo, posing a serious threat to area birds and ecosystems.

Our findings reveal that, unfortunately, the Ramsar Convention to date has not been leveraged or implemented sufficiently to provide any real measure of protection to waterbirds in southeastern Benin.

The location of Ramsar site 1018 in southeastern Benin, including Lake Nokoué and the Lower Ouémé River Valley as well as the urban centers of Cotonou and Porto-Novo. Credit: Abiola Sylvestre Chaffra.

An African Crake; hunters reported taking 73 breeding adults and 248 eggs of this species over the course of a single breeding season in Ramsar site 1018, southeastern Benin. Credit: Stephanie Bartlett.

Waterbirds hung alive by their feet by the roadside for sale as bushmeat, including Allen's Gallinules, African Swamphens, Eurasian Moorhens, Lesser Moorhens, Black Crakes, African Jacanas, and White-faced Whistling Ducks, all taken from Benin's Ramsar site 1018. Credit: Abiola Sylvestre Chaffra.

Although Benin's Decree 2011-394 lists the White-faced Whistling Duck as a partially protected species, and rails and jacanas as non-game species, most hunters do not appear to heed wildlife laws. Perhaps this is not surprising, given that to our knowledge, wildlife laws in Benin are generally not enforced, including laws protecting critically endangered species from persecution for wildlife trade. On the contrary, in many protected areas in Africa, illegal activities, especially wildlife poaching, are common, driving steep, ongoing wildlife declines.

Many wildlife hunters and traders in Benin have no formal education, and the literacy rate in Benin is among the lowest in the world. We urgently recommend increased education, law enforcement and complementary conservation approaches, such as enhanced protections for traditional sacred forests in this area, which provide crucial sanctuaries to persecuted wildlife. Protecting this region's amazing waterbirds and wetland ecosystems will ensure that Benin's unique natural and cultural heritage can thrive for generations to come.

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